Logarithmic Functions

In this section, you will:

Photo of the aftermath of the earthquake in Japan with a focus on the Japanese flag.

In 2010, a major earthquake struck Haiti, destroying or damaging over 285,000 homes1. One year later, another, stronger earthquake devastated Honshu, Japan, destroying or damaging over 332,000 buildings,2 like those shown in [link]. Even though both caused substantial damage, the earthquake in 2011 was 100 times stronger than the earthquake in Haiti. How do we know? The magnitudes of earthquakes are measured on a scale known as the Richter Scale. The Haitian earthquake registered a 7.0 on the Richter Scale3 whereas the Japanese earthquake registered a 9.0.4

The Richter Scale is a base-ten logarithmic scale. In other words, an earthquake of magnitude 8 is not twice as great as an earthquake of magnitude 4. It is 10 84 = 10 4 =10,000

times as great! In this lesson, we will investigate the nature of the Richter Scale and the base-ten function upon which it depends.

Converting from Logarithmic to Exponential Form

In order to analyze the magnitude of earthquakes or compare the magnitudes of two different earthquakes, we need to be able to convert between logarithmic and exponential form. For example, suppose the amount of energy released from one earthquake were 500 times greater than the amount of energy released from another. We want to calculate the difference in magnitude. The equation that represents this problem is 10 x =500,

where x

represents the difference in magnitudes on the Richter Scale. How would we solve for x?

We have not yet learned a method for solving exponential equations. None of the algebraic tools discussed so far is sufficient to solve 10 x =500.

We know that 10 2 =100

and 10 3 =1000,

so it is clear that x

must be some value between 2 and 3, since y= 10 x

is increasing. We can examine a graph, as in [link], to better estimate the solution.

Graph of the intersections of the equations y=10^x and y=500.

Estimating from a graph, however, is imprecise. To find an algebraic solution, we must introduce a new function. Observe that the graph in [link] passes the horizontal line test. The exponential function y= b x

is one-to-one, so its inverse, x= b y

is also a function. As is the case with all inverse functions, we simply interchange x

and y

and solve for y

to find the inverse function. To represent y

as a function of x,

we use a logarithmic function of the form y= log b ( x ).

The base b

logarithm of a number is the exponent by which we must raise b

to get that number.

We read a logarithmic expression as, “The logarithm with base b

of x

is equal to y,

” or, simplified, “log base b

of x

is y.

” We can also say, “ b

raised to the power of y

is x,

” because logs are exponents. For example, the base 2 logarithm of 32 is 5, because 5 is the exponent we must apply to 2 to get 32. Since 2 5 =32,

we can write log 2 32=5.

We read this as “log base 2 of 32 is 5.”

We can express the relationship between logarithmic form and its corresponding exponential form as follows:

log b ( x )=y b y =x, b>0,b1

Note that the base b

is always positive.

Because logarithm is a function, it is most correctly written as log b (x),

using parentheses to denote function evaluation, just as we would with f(x).

However, when the input is a single variable or number, it is common to see the parentheses dropped and the expression written without parentheses, as log b x.

Note that many calculators require parentheses around the x.

We can illustrate the notation of logarithms as follows:

Notice that, comparing the logarithm function and the exponential function, the input and the output are switched. This means y= log b ( x )

and y= b x

are inverse functions.

Definition of the Logarithmic Function

A logarithm base b

of a positive number x

satisfies the following definition.

For x>0,b>0,b1,

y= log b ( x ) is equivalent to  b y =x

where,

Also, since the logarithmic and exponential functions switch the x

and y

values, the domain and range of the exponential function are interchanged for the logarithmic function. Therefore,

Can we take the logarithm of a negative number?

No. Because the base of an exponential function is always positive, no power of that base can ever be negative. We can never take the logarithm of a negative number. Also, we cannot take the logarithm of zero. Calculators may output a log of a negative number when in complex mode, but the log of a negative number is not a real number.

Given an equation in logarithmic form log b ( x )=y,

convert it to exponential form.

  1. Examine the equation y= log b x

    and identify

    b,y,andx.
  2. Rewrite log b x=y

    as

    b y =x.
Converting from Logarithmic Form to Exponential Form

Write the following logarithmic equations in exponential form.

  1. log 6 ( 6 )= 1 2
  2. log 3 ( 9 )=2

First, identify the values of b,y,and x.

Then, write the equation in the form b y =x.

  1. log 6 ( 6 )= 1 2

    Here, b=6,y= 1 2 ,and x= 6.

    Therefore, the equation log 6 ( 6 )= 1 2

    is equivalent to 6 1 2 = 6 .

  2. log 3 ( 9 )=2

    Here, b=3,y=2,and x=9.

    Therefore, the equation log 3 ( 9 )=2

    is equivalent to 3 2 =9.

Write the following logarithmic equations in exponential form.

  1. log 10 ( 1,000,000 )=6
  2. log 5 ( 25 )=2
  1. log 10 ( 1,000,000 )=6

    is equivalent to

    10 6 =1,000,000
  2. log 5 ( 25 )=2

    is equivalent to

    5 2 =25

Converting from Exponential to Logarithmic Form

To convert from exponents to logarithms, we follow the same steps in reverse. We identify the base b,

exponent x,

and output y.

Then we write x= log b ( y ).

Converting from Exponential Form to Logarithmic Form

Write the following exponential equations in logarithmic form.

  1. 2 3 =8
  2. 5 2 =25
  3. 10 4 = 1 10,000

First, identify the values of b,y,andx.

Then, write the equation in the form x= log b ( y ).

  1. 2 3 =8

    Here, b=2,

    x=3,

    and y=8.

    Therefore, the equation 2 3 =8

    is equivalent to log 2 (8)=3.

  2. 5 2 =25

    Here, b=5,

    x=2,

    and y=25.

    Therefore, the equation 5 2 =25

    is equivalent to log 5 (25)=2.

  3. 10 4 = 1 10,000

    Here, b=10,

    x=4,

    and y= 1 10,000 .

    Therefore, the equation 10 4 = 1 10,000

    is equivalent to log 10 ( 1 10,000 )=4.

Write the following exponential equations in logarithmic form.

  1. 3 2 =9
  2. 5 3 =125
  3. 2 1 = 1 2
  1. 3 2 =9

    is equivalent to

    log 3 (9)=2
  2. 5 3 =125

    is equivalent to

    log 5 (125)=3
  3. 2 1 = 1 2

    is equivalent to

    log 2 ( 1 2 )=1

Evaluating Logarithms

Knowing the squares, cubes, and roots of numbers allows us to evaluate many logarithms mentally. For example, consider log 2 8.

We ask, “To what exponent must 2

be raised in order to get 8?” Because we already know 2 3 =8,

it follows that log 2 8=3.

Now consider solving log 7 49

and log 3 27

mentally.

Even some seemingly more complicated logarithms can be evaluated without a calculator. For example, let’s evaluate log 2 3 4 9

mentally.

**Given a logarithm of the form y= log b ( x ),

evaluate it mentally.**

  1. Rewrite the argument x

    as a power of

    b: b y =x.
  2. Use previous knowledge of powers of b

    identify

    y

    by asking, “To what exponent should

    b

    be raised in order to get

    x?

Solving Logarithms Mentally

Solve y= log 4 ( 64 )

without using a calculator.

First we rewrite the logarithm in exponential form: 4 y =64.

Next, we ask, “To what exponent must 4 be raised in order to get 64?”

We know

4 3 =64

Therefore,

log ( 64 ) 4 =3

Solve y= log 121 ( 11 )

without using a calculator.

log 121 ( 11 )= 1 2

(recalling that 121 = (121) 1 2 =11

)

Evaluating the Logarithm of a Reciprocal

Evaluate y= log 3 ( 1 27 )

without using a calculator.

First we rewrite the logarithm in exponential form: 3 y = 1 27 .

Next, we ask, “To what exponent must 3 be raised in order to get 1 27 ?

We know 3 3 =27,

but what must we do to get the reciprocal, 1 27 ?

Recall from working with exponents that b a = 1 b a .

We use this information to write

3 3 = 1 3 3 = 1 27

Therefore, log 3 ( 1 27 )=3.

Evaluate y= log 2 ( 1 32 )

without using a calculator.

log 2 ( 1 32 )=5

Using Common Logarithms

Sometimes we may see a logarithm written without a base. In this case, we assume that the base is 10. In other words, the expression log( x )

means log 10 ( x ).

We call a base-10 logarithm a common logarithm. Common logarithms are used to measure the Richter Scale mentioned at the beginning of the section. Scales for measuring the brightness of stars and the pH of acids and bases also use common logarithms.

Definition of the Common Logarithm

A common logarithm is a logarithm with base 10.

We write log 10 ( x )

simply as log( x ).

The common logarithm of a positive number x

satisfies the following definition.

For x>0,

y=log( x ) is equivalent to  10 y =x

We read log( x )

as, “the logarithm with base 10

of x

” or “log base 10 of x.

The logarithm y

is the exponent to which 10

must be raised to get x.

**Given a common logarithm of the form y=log( x ),

evaluate it mentally.**

  1. Rewrite the argument x

    as a power of

    10: 10 y =x.
  2. Use previous knowledge of powers of 10

    to identify

    y

    by asking, “To what exponent must

    10

    be raised in order to get

    x?

Finding the Value of a Common Logarithm Mentally

Evaluate y=log(1000)

without using a calculator.

First we rewrite the logarithm in exponential form: 10 y =1000.

Next, we ask, “To what exponent must 10

be raised in order to get 1000?” We know

10 3 =1000

Therefore, log( 1000 )=3.

Evaluate y=log(1,000,000).

log(1,000,000)=6

**Given a common logarithm with the form y=log( x ),

evaluate it using a calculator.**

  1. Press [LOG].
  2. Enter the value given for x,

    followed by [ ) ].

  3. Press [ENTER].
Finding the Value of a Common Logarithm Using a Calculator

Evaluate y=log( 321 )

to four decimal places using a calculator.

  • Press [LOG].
  • Enter 321, followed by [ ) ].
  • Press [ENTER].

Rounding to four decimal places, log( 321 )2.5065.

Analysis

Note that 10 2 =100

and that 10 3 =1000.

Since 321 is between 100 and 1000, we know that log( 321 )

must be between log( 100 )

and log( 1000 ).

This gives us the following:

100 < 321 < 1000 2 < 2.5065 < 3

Evaluate y=log( 123 )

to four decimal places using a calculator.

log( 123 )2.0899
Rewriting and Solving a Real-World Exponential Model

The amount of energy released from one earthquake was 500 times greater than the amount of energy released from another. The equation 10 x =500

represents this situation, where x

is the difference in magnitudes on the Richter Scale. To the nearest thousandth, what was the difference in magnitudes?

We begin by rewriting the exponential equation in logarithmic form.

10 x =500 log( 500 ) =x Use the definition of the common log.

Next we evaluate the logarithm using a calculator:

  • Press [LOG].
  • Enter 500,

    followed by [ ) ].

  • Press [ENTER].
  • To the nearest thousandth, log( 500 )2.699.

The difference in magnitudes was about 2.699.

The amount of energy released from one earthquake was 8,500

times greater than the amount of energy released from another. The equation 10 x =8500

represents this situation, where x

is the difference in magnitudes on the Richter Scale. To the nearest thousandth, what was the difference in magnitudes?

The difference in magnitudes was about 3.929.

Using Natural Logarithms

The most frequently used base for logarithms is e.

Base e

logarithms are important in calculus and some scientific applications; they are called natural logarithms. The base e

logarithm, log e ( x ),

has its own notation, ln(x).

Most values of ln( x )

can be found only using a calculator. The major exception is that, because the logarithm of 1 is always 0 in any base, ln1=0.

For other natural logarithms, we can use the ln

key that can be found on most scientific calculators. We can also find the natural logarithm of any power of e

using the inverse property of logarithms.

Definition of the Natural Logarithm

A natural logarithm is a logarithm with base e.

We write log e ( x )

simply as ln( x ).

The natural logarithm of a positive number x

satisfies the following definition.

For x>0,

y=ln( x ) is equivalent to  e y =x

We read ln( x )

as, “the logarithm with base e

of x

” or “the natural logarithm of x.

The logarithm y

is the exponent to which e

must be raised to get x.

Since the functions y=e x

and y=ln( x )

are inverse functions, ln( e x )=x

for all x

and e = ln(x) x

for x>0.

**Given a natural logarithm with the form y=ln( x ),

evaluate it using a calculator.**

  1. Press [LN].
  2. Enter the value given for x,

    followed by [ ) ].

  3. Press [ENTER].
Evaluating a Natural Logarithm Using a Calculator

Evaluate y=ln( 500 )

to four decimal places using a calculator.

  • Press [LN].
  • Enter 500,

    followed by [ ) ].

  • Press [ENTER].

Rounding to four decimal places, ln(500)6.2146

Evaluate ln(−500).

It is not possible to take the logarithm of a negative number in the set of real numbers.

Access this online resource for additional instruction and practice with logarithms.

Key Equations

Definition of the logarithmic function For   x>0,b>0,b1,
y= log b ( x )  if and only if   b y =x.
Definition of the common logarithm For  x>0, y=log( x )  if and only if   10 y =x.
Definition of the natural logarithm For  x>0, y=ln( x )  if and only if   e y =x.

Key Concepts

Section Exercises

Verbal

What is a base b

logarithm? Discuss the meaning by interpreting each part of the equivalent equations b y =x

and log b x=y

for b>0,b1.

A logarithm is an exponent. Specifically, it is the exponent to which a base b

is raised to produce a given value. In the expressions given, the base b

has the same value. The exponent, y,

in the expression b y

can also be written as the logarithm, log b x,

and the value of x

is the result of raising b

to the power of y.

How is the logarithmic function f(x)= log b x

related to the exponential function g(x)= b x ?

What is the result of composing these two functions?

How can the logarithmic equation log b x=y

be solved for x

using the properties of exponents?

Since the equation of a logarithm is equivalent to an exponential equation, the logarithm can be converted to the exponential equation b y =x,

and then properties of exponents can be applied to solve for x.

Discuss the meaning of the common logarithm. What is its relationship to a logarithm with base b,

and how does the notation differ?

Discuss the meaning of the natural logarithm. What is its relationship to a logarithm with base b,

and how does the notation differ?

The natural logarithm is a special case of the logarithm with base b

in that the natural log always has base e.

Rather than notating the natural logarithm as log e ( x ),

the notation used is ln( x ).

Algebraic

For the following exercises, rewrite each equation in exponential form.

log 4 (q)=m
log a (b)=c
a c =b
log 16 ( y )=x
log x ( 64 )=y
x y =64
log y ( x )=−11
log 15 ( a )=b
15 b =a
log y ( 137 )=x
log 13 ( 142 )=a
13 a =142
log(v)=t
ln(w)=n
e n =w

For the following exercises, rewrite each equation in logarithmic form.

4 x =y
c d =k
log c (k)=d
m 7 =n
19 x =y
log 19 y=x
x 10 13 =y
n 4 =103
log n ( 103 )=4
( 7 5 ) m =n
y x = 39 100
log y ( 39 100 )=x
10 a =b
e k =h
ln(h)=k

For the following exercises, solve for x

by converting the logarithmic equation to exponential form.

log 3 (x)=2
log 2 (x)=3
x= 2 3 = 1 8
log 5 (x)=2
log 3 ( x )=3
x= 3 3 =27
log 2 (x)=6
log 9 (x)= 1 2
x= 9 1 2 =3
log 18 (x)=2
log 6 ( x )=3
x= 6 3 = 1 216
log(x)=3
ln(x)=2
x= e 2

For the following exercises, use the definition of common and natural logarithms to simplify.

log( 100 8 )
10 log(32)
32
2log(.0001)
e ln( 1.06 )
1.06
ln( e 5.03 )
e ln( 10.125 ) +4
14.125

Numeric

For the following exercises, evaluate the base b

logarithmic expression without using a calculator.

log 3 ( 1 27 )
log 6 ( 6 )
1 2
log 2 ( 1 8 )+4
6 log 8 (4)
4

For the following exercises, evaluate the common logarithmic expression without using a calculator.

log(10,000)
log(0.001)
3
log(1)+7
2log( 100 3 )
12

For the following exercises, evaluate the natural logarithmic expression without using a calculator.

ln( e 1 3 )
ln(1)
0
ln( e 0.225 )3
25ln( e 2 5 )
10

Technology

For the following exercises, evaluate each expression using a calculator. Round to the nearest thousandth.

log(0.04)
ln(15)
2.708
ln( 4 5 )
log( 2 )
0.151
ln( 2 )

Extensions

Is x=0

in the domain of the function f(x)=log(x)?

If so, what is the value of the function when x=0?

Verify the result.

No, the function has no defined value for x=0.

To verify, suppose x=0

is in the domain of the function f(x)=log(x).

Then there is some number n

such that n=log(0).

Rewriting as an exponential equation gives: 10 n =0,

which is impossible since no such real number n

exists. Therefore, x=0

is not the domain of the function f(x)=log(x).

Is f(x)=0

in the range of the function f(x)=log(x)?

If so, for what value of x?

Verify the result.

Is there a number x

such that lnx=2?

If so, what is that number? Verify the result.

Yes. Suppose there exists a real number x

such that lnx=2.

Rewriting as an exponential equation gives x= e 2 ,

which is a real number. To verify, let x= e 2 .

Then, by definition, ln( x )=ln( e 2 )=2.

Is the following true: log 3 (27) log 4 ( 1 64 ) =−1?

Verify the result.

Is the following true: ln( e 1.725 ) ln( 1 ) =1.725?

Verify the result.

No; ln( 1 )=0,

so ln( e 1.725 ) ln( 1 )

is undefined.

Real-World Applications

The exposure index EI

for a 35 millimeter camera is a measurement of the amount of light that hits the film. It is determined by the equation EI= log 2 ( f 2 t ),

where f

is the “f-stop” setting on the camera, and t

is the exposure time in seconds. Suppose the f-stop setting is 8

and the desired exposure time is 2

seconds. What will the resulting exposure index be?

Refer to the previous exercise. Suppose the light meter on a camera indicates an EI

of 2,

and the desired exposure time is 16 seconds. What should the f-stop setting be?

2

The intensity levels I of two earthquakes measured on a seismograph can be compared by the formula log I 1 I 2 = M 1 M 2

where M

is the magnitude given by the Richter Scale. In August 2009, an earthquake of magnitude 6.1 hit Honshu, Japan. In March 2011, that same region experienced yet another, more devastating earthquake, this time with a magnitude of 9.0.5 How many times greater was the intensity of the 2011 earthquake? Round to the nearest whole number.

Footnotes

Glossary

common logarithm
the exponent to which 10 must be raised to get x; log 10 ( x )

is written simply as

log( x ).
logarithm
the exponent to which b

must be raised to get

x;

written

y= log b ( x )
natural logarithm
the exponent to which the number e

must be raised to get

x; log e ( x )

is written as

ln( x ).

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